Pharaoh Ramses II

Statue of Ramses II

Often referred to as Ramses the Great, Pharaoh Ramses II remains the most iconic figure of ancient Egypt’s golden age. His reign was a masterclass in longevity, propaganda, and architectural ambition, leaving a mark on the Nile Valley that is still visible over 3,000 years later.

Life and Timeline

Ramses II was born around 1303 BCE into the 19th Dynasty. He was the son of Pharaoh Seti I and Queen Tuya, and he was groomed for leadership from a very young age, accompanying his father on military campaigns while still a teenager. He ascended the throne in 1279 BCE and ruled for a staggering 66 years, concluding with his death in 1213 BCE. Living into his 90s, Ramses outlived many of his sons and wives, a feat almost unheard of in the ancient world.

    Significance of His Reign

    Ramses II didn’t just rule Egypt; he redefined its image. His significance can be boiled down to three major pillars:

    1. Military Might and Diplomacy

    Early in his reign, Ramses sought to reclaim territories in the Levant. This led to the famous Battle of Kadesh against the Hittite Empire. While the battle ended in a stalemate, Ramses used his sophisticated propaganda machine to portray it as a glorious victory. More importantly, it eventually led to the world’s first recorded peace treaty, ending decades of conflict.

    2. The Great Builder

    No Pharaoh built on a scale quite like Ramses. He moved the capital to Pi-Ramesses in the Nile Delta and commissioned massive projects across the empire.

    • Abu Simbel: Two massive rock temples carved into a mountainside in Nubia, featuring four 20-meter tall statues of himself.
    • The Ramesseum: His sprawling memorial temple at Thebes.
    • Karnak Temple: He completed the breathtaking Great Hypostyle Hall.

    3. Living God

    Ramses was a master of self-promotion. By placing his likeness on almost every surface imaginable—and often usurping the statues of previous pharaohs by carving his name over theirs—he ensured that his people (and history) would view him as a divine, eternal protector of Egypt.

    Final Resting Place

    Upon his death in 1213 BCE, he was buried in the Valley of the Kings. However, due to the threat of tomb robbers, his mummy was eventually moved to a secret cache at Deir el-Bahari. When his remarkably well-preserved body was rediscovered in the 19th century, it confirmed what the monuments had suggested: Ramses II was a man of commanding presence who truly earned the title “The Great.”

    The arrival of the colossal bust of Ramses II (also known as the “Younger Memnon”) at the British Museum is one of the most famous—and historically contentious—stories of 19th-century archaeology.

    The Acquisition (1815–1817)

    The bust, carved from a single block of two-toned granite, originally stood at the Ramesseum, the mortuary temple of Ramses II in Thebes (modern-day Luxor).

    • The Catalyst: In 1815, the British Consul-General in Egypt, Henry Salt, hired the Italian explorer and former circus strongman Giovanni Battista Belzoni to retrieve the statue.
    • The Engineering Feat: Weighing approximately 7.2 tons, the statue had defeated previous attempts at removal, including an unsuccessful effort by Napoleon’s engineers a decade earlier (who famously drilled a hole in the statue’s right shoulder, still visible today, intending to use explosives).
    • The Move: Using ancient techniques—levers, rollers, and hundreds of local laborers—Belzoni moved the colossus to the banks of the Nile over the course of 17 days in 1816. It was then shipped to London, arriving at the British Museum in 1817.

    Artistic Impact

    The statue’s arrival had an immediate effect on British culture. Its serene expression and massive scale challenged the then-prevailing idea that Greek art was the only standard of beauty. The sight of the massive, fragmented head inspired Percy Bysshe Shelley to write his famous sonnet, Ozymandias, which muses on the inevitable decline of even the greatest empires.

      Repatriation

      In recent decades, the statue has become part of the global discussion regarding repatriation (the return of cultural artifacts to their country of origin). Egypt has requested repatriation of the bust, along with the Rosetta Stone, and other artifacts taken during the British colonial period.

      British Museum

      British Museum entrance

      Stepping through the colonnaded entrance of the British Museum in the Fitzrovia neighborhood of London feels like walking into a physical encyclopedia of humanity. It is one of the world’s oldest and most comprehensive national museums, but its origins are far more personal—and eccentric—than the grand architecture suggests.

      Great Court inside British Museum

      The Physician’s Legacy: Sir Hans Sloane

      Unlike many national museums born from royal collections, the British Museum began with a doctor. Sir Hans Sloane (1660–1753) was an Anglo-Irish physician and naturalist who spent his life compulsively collecting… well, everything.

      By the time he passed away at age 92, Sloane had amassed over 71,000 items, including:

      • Books and manuscripts
      • Dried plants and wildlife specimens
      • Antiquities from Egypt, Greece, and Rome

      Sloane didn’t want his life’s work broken up. In his will, he bequeathed the entire collection to King George II for the nation, in exchange for a payment of £20,000 to his heirs. The King accepted, and the British Museum was formally established by an Act of Parliament in 1753.

      A House for the World: Early Years

      The museum first opened its doors to the public on January 15, 1759, in Montagu House, a 17th-century mansion on the site of the current building.

      In those early days, admission was free (as it remains today), but you couldn’t just wander in. Visitors had to apply for tickets in writing, and tours were conducted by curators for small groups. As the British Empire expanded through the 18th and 19th centuries, the collection grew so rapidly that Montagu House practically burst at the seams.

      The Great Expansion

      The current Greek Revival building we see today was designed by architect Sir Robert Smirke and completed in the mid-19th century. During this era, the museum’s focus shifted from natural history specimens (which eventually moved to the Natural History Museum in 1881) to archaeology and ethnography.

      The 20th century brought even more transformation, most notably the Queen Elizabeth II Great Court. This two-acre space, enclosed by a spectacular glass and steel roof, turned the museum’s hidden courtyard into the largest covered public square in Europe.

      The Collection From Rosetta to Elgin to Rapa Nui

      With over 8 million objects, the British Museum has an impressive collection of artifacts on display. However, there is controversy as to how some of these artifacts entered the collection.

      The Rosetta Stone

      The Rosetta Stone

      The Rosetta Stone is key to modern understanding of Egyptian hieroglyphs. However, the Rosetta Stone was originally taken by French invading forces in 1799 in Rashid (Rosetta), Egypt, which was further taken by the British after Napoleon’s defeat in Egypt in 1801. It has resided at the British Museum ever since. Egypt has since requested repatriation of the Rosetta Stone, but the British Museum has not acted upon the request.

      The Elgin Marbles

      Lord Elgin friezes

      Tbe Elgin Marbles refers to the hundreds of the architectural friezes, sculptures, and facades from the Parthenon in Athens. The marbled works were created roughly in the 5th century BC by the sculptor Phidias. These were taken by Lord Elgin, the British ambassador to the sultan’s court of the Ottoman Empire, between 1802-1812.

      Elgin marble sculptures from the Parthenon

      The artifacts were kept in Elgin’s private collection for about a decade upon being brought to England. When public outcry erupted when news of the taking of the Parthenon marbles was published, he defended his actions by claiming he had an imperial decree, or a firman, from the Sultan. This turned out to be false. Greece made a formal request for repatriation starting in 1983 for the return of the marbles, which has been rejected by the British Museum trustees. As of December 2024, however, there was a report that after a meeting between UK Prime Minister Keir Starmer and Greek Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis, a deal for co-sharing may be in the works.

      The Benin Bronzes

      The Benin Bronzes artifacts are intricate brass plaques and sculptures that adorned the royal palace of the Kingdom of Benin. They were mostly created during two major metal working periods in Benin history, during the reigns of King Esigie during the 16th century, and King Eresoyen during the 18th century. The Benin Bronzes were taken by invading British forces during their 1897 expeditionary campaign expanding from the colonial Nigerian base. While repatriation efforts are ongoing with the British Museum, other museums with stolen Benin bronze artifacts have returned their collections to Nigeria, including the Horniman Museum in London, Museum of Fine Art in Boston, University of Aberdeen in Scotland, the Wereldmuseum in the Netherlands, and the Staatliche Museum in Berlin.

      Hoa Hakananai’a

      Hoa Hakananai’a

      The Hoa Hakananai’a is a moai, or basalt stone figure representing protection over the local Polynesian community of Rapa Nui, or Easter Island. The stone figure, built c. 1200, on Rapa Nui, was taken by British sailors of the HMS Topaze in 1868, and presented to the British government. Calls to repatriate the moai have not yet been successful.

      Amitabha Buddha

      Amitabha Buddha

      The Amitabha Buddha is a huge piece in the museum’s collection (5.78 meters tall) that is legitimately a gift, from the Chinese government. It was first created around 585 AD, and is made entirely of marble. It was found in Hebei, China. In 1935, the Chinese government loaned it to the British Museum for exhibition. It was gifted to the museum in 1938. It went through a major restoration.

      A Living Conversation

      Today, the British Museum is more than just a treasure house; it is a center for global debate. In recent decades, the museum has navigated complex conversations regarding the repatriation of artifacts and how to best represent the history of colonialism.

      “The British Museum is not a museum of the British, but a museum of the world for the British and for the world.”

      – Former Director Neil MacGregor

      Winston Churchill

      Statue of Winston Churchill outside Parliament building

      Winston Churchill was a two-time prime minister of Great Britain, 1940-1945 and 1951-1955. He served at a time of war, leading the country through World War II against the Nazi occupation of continental Europe. He is generally regarded as a brilliant wartime leader and strategist, among of which includes intense persuasion of US President Franklin D. Roosevelt to join the Allied cause against Hitler (although it took the Japanese surprise attack at Pearl Harbor to achieve US entry into the war). He is criticized, however, for his pro-white imperialist views, especially during a famine in India, suppression of rioting in colonial British Africa, and opposing Indian independence.

      Westminster Abbey

      A Walk Through History: Why Westminster Abbey is More Than Just a Church

      If walls could talk, the stones of Westminster Abbey wouldn’t just speak; they’d recite the entire history of the English-speaking world. Located in the heart of London, this Gothic masterpiece is far more than a place of worship—it is the nation’s “Valhalla,” a royal stage, and a silent witness to over a thousand years of human drama.

      Inside the main nave at the Westminster Abbey

      Whether you’re a history buff, an architecture enthusiast, or just someone looking for that perfect London photo, here is why the Abbey remains an unmissable stop.

      Royal Connection: Crowns and Weddings

      Since the coronation of William the Conqueror in 1066, Westminster Abbey has been the exclusive setting for the coronation of British monarchs.

      Coronation stage, Westminster Abbey
      • The Coronation Chair: You can still see the historic St. Edward’s Chair, which has been used in every ceremony for centuries.
      • Royal Weddings: It’s also the backdrop for modern fairy tales, including the 2011 wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton.

      Poets’ Corner and the Greats

      One of the most moving parts of the Abbey is Poets’ Corner. Walking through the South Transept, you are surrounded by the effigies of the giants of literature, including Geoffrey Chaucer, Charles Dickens, D.H. Lawrence, Lord Byron, Alfred Tennyson, C.S. Lewis, Rudyard Kipling, and Jane Austen (memorial); sciences, including Isaac Newton, Charles Darwin, Robert Halley, Stephen Hawking; and music including George Frederich Handel, Edward Elgar, and Ralph Vaughan Williams.

      Poets Corner

      Architectural Grandeur

      The Abbey is a textbook example of Gothic architecture. As you walk through the nave, look up—the soaring pointed arches and intricate stone vaulting are designed to draw the eye (and the soul) upward.

      • The Lady Chapel: Don’t miss the Henry VII Chapel at the far end. Its “fan-vaulted” ceiling is widely considered one of the most beautiful examples of medieval craftsmanship in the world.
      • The Cloisters: For a moment of peace, step into the open-air cloisters where monks once meditated, offering a quiet escape from the London bustle.

      4. The Grave of the Unknown Warrior

      Amidst the monuments to kings and scientists lies one of the most sacred spots in the building which is the grave of the unknown warrior. This single unidentified soldier, brought back from France after World War I, represents all who died in conflict. It is the only grave in the Abbey that no one is permitted to walk on.

      Quick Tips for Your Visit

      • Book Ahead: It’s one of London’s most popular sites. Pre-booking tickets online saves time and ensures entry.
      • Attend Evensong: If you want to experience the Abbey as it was intended, attend an Evensong service. The acoustics are hauntingly beautiful, and it is free to the public (though you won’t be able to tour the monuments during the service).
      • Respect the Rules: Remember that it is an active church. Photography is generally restricted in certain areas to maintain the sanctity of the space.

      London, United Kingdom

      We are on to the UK. Welcome to London! Whether you’re here for the royal pageantry or a pint in a 500-year-old pub, you’re walking through layers of history that span nearly two millennia. Here is the essential guide to the “Big Smoke.”

      (As a side note, this unglamorous nickname is derived from centuries of polluted fog stretching back well over 500 years. It grew worse during the Industrial Revolution and through the World Wars, when industry and shipping commerce turned the sky black and gray with soot).

      The Name: Why “London”?

      The etymology of London is a bit of a historical mystery, but most scholars agree it stems from the Roman name Londinium.

      • The Theories: It may come from the Celtic word Lowonida, meaning “river too wide to ford,” or Londan, meaning “a place that floods.”
      • The Myth: Legend once claimed it was named Troia Nova (New Troy) and later Ludgate after a mythical King Lud, but modern linguists generally stick to the Celtic/Roman roots.

      A Timeline of Power

      1. Roman Londinium (43 AD – 410 AD)

      The Romans founded the city as a strategic port on the River Thames. It quickly became the capital of Roman Britain. You can still see fragments of the London Wall near the Tower of London today.

      2. Medieval Resilience (1066 – 1485)

      After William the Conqueror’s victory in 1066, he built the White Tower to intimidate the locals. During this era, Westminster became the seat of government, while the City remained the heart of commerce—a divide that still exists today.

      3. Empire and Expansion (1500s – 1900s)

      As the capital of the British Empire, London became the most powerful city in the world.

      • The Great Fire (1666): destroyed 80% of the city but led to the stone-built London we see today, including St. Paul’s Cathedral.
      • The Victorian Era: The city exploded in size, becoming the first to reach a population of one million, fueled by the Industrial Revolution and global trade.

      4. Modern London (1945 – Present)

      After surviving the Blitz in WWII, London reinvented itself as a global financial hub and a cultural melting pot. Today, it remains the capital of the United Kingdom and a leading global city.

      City Identity & Vital Stats

      The Flag

      The flag of the City of London, the Square Mile flag, features the Cross of St George (red cross on a white background) with a red sword in the upper hoist canton. The sword represents the weapon used to behead St. Paul, the city’s patron saint.

      Population

      ~9.7 Million (Greater London)

      Demographics

      Extremely diverse: ~40% of residents were born outside the UK.

      Languages

      Over 300 languages are spoken across the boroughs.

      Dublin, Ireland

      Dublin, the vibrant capital of Ireland, is a city where deep historical roots meet a modern, cosmopolitan atmosphere. Located at the mouth of the River Liffey, its name derives from the Irish Dubhlinn, meaning “Black Pool.”

      History in Brief

      Dublin’s history is a layered narrative of settlement, conquest, and revolution.

      • Viking & Medieval Origins: While the area saw human activity as far back as 6,000 years ago, the Vikings established a permanent settlement in 841. Following the Anglo-Norman invasion in 1169, Dublin became the center of English power in Ireland.
      • The Georgian Golden Age: During the 18th century, Dublin underwent massive expansion, becoming the second-largest city in the British Empire. Much of its iconic red-brick architecture and grand squares (like Merrion Square) date from this era.
      • Independence & Modernity: The early 20th century was defined by the struggle for Irish independence. Following the 1916 Easter Rising and the subsequent War of Independence, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State in 1922 (and later the Republic of Ireland).

      Notable Dates and Events

      YearEventSignificance
      841Viking FoundingEstablished Dyflin as a major trading port.
      1014Battle of ClontarfHigh King Brian Boru defeated the Vikings, breaking their power in Ireland.
      1592Trinity College FoundedIreland’s oldest university was established by Queen Elizabeth I.
      1801Acts of UnionAbolished the Irish Parliament; Dublin lost its status as a legislative capital.
      1916Easter RisingA pivotal armed insurrection against British rule centered at the GPO.
      1922Capital StatusDublin became the capital of the newly independent Irish Free State.
      1988Millennium YearCelebrated 1,000 years since the city’s official founding in 988.

      Population and Size

      As of 2026, Dublin continues to be the primary engine of Ireland’s population growth.

      • City Population: The city proper holds approximately 590,000 residents.
      • Metro Population: The Greater Dublin Area (GDA) has reached an estimated 1,314,000, accounting for over 25% of the total population of Ireland.
      • Physical Size:
        • City Proper: ~115 $km^2$ (approx. 45 square miles).
        • Urban Area: ~318 $km^2$.

      Demographics

      Dublin is the most diverse region in Ireland, reflecting its role as a global tech and financial hub.

      • Diversity: Roughly 20-25% of the population was born outside of Ireland. Significant minority communities include individuals from Poland, the UK, India, Romania, and Brazil.
      • Age Profile: Dublin has a relatively young population compared to other European capitals, with a median age of approximately 37–39 years.
      • Economy & Education: The city has a highly educated workforce; over half of adults in the Dublin region hold a third-level (university) qualification.
      • Religion: While traditionally Roman Catholic, there has been a significant rise in those identifying as having “No Religion” (approximately 15-20% in recent census data), alongside growing Muslim, Orthodox, and Hindu communities.

      Welcome to Dublin!

      Malasadas

      Malasadas

      Malasadas are distinctive to the Hawaiian cuisine, but, interestingly enough, are not originally from Hawai’i (like many culinary traditions). Malasadas were introduced by Portuguese immigrants from São Miguel Island in the Azores in the 1800s, and quickly caught on with their doughnut exterior, and creamy interior. Malasada, or malassada in Portuguese, meaning “poorly cooked” because of the crispy outside and soft, doughy inside, is essentially a doughnut without the hole. The original Portuguese version did not have filling, but the Hawaiian culture quickly adapted it, filling it with creamy sweet, fruit-flavored fillings (influenced by French immigrants from Tahiti and France).

      Today’s malasada is filled with delicious flavors, including coconut, mango, lilikoi (passion fruit), guava, and pineapple.